EMC Design Fundamentals: Safe Use of Varistors and Common Mode Chokes in Mains and Data-Line Filters

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) remains one of the key challenges in modern electronics, affecting both signal integrity and the reliable operation of power and data systems. In low‑voltage and mains applications, varistors and common mode chokes are two of the most important passive components for overvoltage protection and EMC filtering, yet they are also frequently misunderstood and mis‑applied.

This article distills the main engineering insights from a Würth Elektronik technical webinar on EMC design fundamentals, focusing on how to select and use varistors and common mode chokes safely and effectively in real‑world designs.

Key Takeaways

• Surge, EFT and ESD are distinct overvoltage phenomena with different energy and repetition profiles, so they require different protection strategies and component ratings.
• THT disc varistors offer high surge energy handling and wide voltage range for mains and DC, while multilayer SMD varistors are better suited to compact, lower‑energy ESD and transient protection on data and low‑power lines.
• TVS diodes and multilayer varistors differ mainly in clamping behaviour and capacitance; low‑capacitance ESD devices are essential for preserving signal integrity on high‑speed interfaces such as USB and Ethernet.
• Common mode chokes present high impedance to common‑mode noise but low impedance to differential‑mode signals, allowing efficient EMC filtering without saturating under normal load current.
• Winding style (bifilar vs sectional), core material (MnZn, NiZn, nanocrystalline) and parasitic elements strongly influence the attenuation vs frequency profile, so engineers should select chokes based on impedance curves rather than inductance alone.
• For mains filters, sectional‑wound chokes and appropriate creepage and clearance distances are required to meet IEC safety standards, while leakage inductance can be exploited to attenuate high‑frequency differential‑mode noise without affecting 50/60 Hz.
• Proper placement of varistors, TVS diodes and common mode chokes—especially near connectors and system boundaries—significantly improves EMC performance and reduces the risk of long‑term component ageing or premature failure.

Key features and benefits

Varistors and common mode chokes work together within typical mains and low‑voltage EMC filters to limit surge and ESD stress and to suppress common‑mode noise without degrading the desired power or data signal. A typical single‑phase mains filter will contain a fuse holder, varistor, discharge resistor, common mode choke, and X/Y capacitors, with each component contributing a distinct protection or filtering function.

Varistors (both through‑hole disc types and multilayer SMD types) provide fast, non‑linear clamping of overvoltage events, diverting surge energy away from sensitive circuitry once the voltage exceeds their breakdown region. Common mode chokes, built from at least two windings on a shared ferrite or nanocrystalline core, present high impedance to common‑mode currents while leaving differential‑mode currents largely unaffected, helping designs pass CISPR/IEC EMI limits without compromising power or signal integrity.

Surge and transient environment overview

International EMC standards define different overvoltage phenomena that protection components must withstand and mitigate:

• Surge (IEC 61000‑4‑5) is typically associated with lightning and large switching events, characterized by high voltage, high current, low frequency, and high energy per pulse.
• Electrical Fast Transient/Burst (EFT/B, IEC 61000‑4‑4) arises from industrial events such as switching of inductive loads, with high voltage, low current, low energy per pulse but very high repetition.
• Electrostatic discharge (ESD, IEC 61000‑4‑2) originates from contact or air discharges between bodies, with very high voltage, relatively low current, low energy, and low repetition rate.

From an energy perspective, ESD has the highest voltage but significantly lower energy than surge and EFT, while EFT bursts can reach energy levels around one joule when many pulses are combined into a burst. This difference in waveform characteristics is central to selecting appropriate protection components and understanding their stress profiles over lifetime.

Overvoltage	Voltage	Current	Rise time	Pulse length	Energy
Surge	0.5–4 kV	0.1–2 kA @ 2 Ω load	1.25 µs	50 µs	10–80 J
EFTB	0.5–4 kV	10–100 A @ 50 Ω load	5 ns	15 ms	100–1000 mJ
ESD	4–15 kV	1–50 A @ 50 Ω load	0.8 ns	60 ns	1–10 mJ

Typical applications

Varistors and common mode chokes appear in a wide range of applications, from AC mains filters to low‑voltage DC power and high‑speed data interfaces.

• Single‑phase AC mains filters for SMPS, motor drives, and industrial equipment use THT varistors with sectional‑wound common mode chokes and X/Y safety capacitors to meet IEC creepage/clearance requirements and pass conducted EMI tests.
• DC power lines in LED matrices, power supplies, and CAN nodes benefit from DC‑rated common mode chokes chosen for their current rating and impedance profile, often placed close to connectors to block conducted noise at system boundaries.
• High‑speed data lines such as USB and Ethernet incorporate dedicated common mode chokes (often bifilar wound) with low differential‑mode impedance at the signal frequency and high common‑mode impedance at noise frequencies, plus low‑capacitance ESD TVS diodes or multilayer varistors.
• Mixed interfaces carrying both data and DC power—such as certain communication buses or LED drivers—may use common mode chokes that simultaneously provide differential‑ and common‑mode attenuation at specific frequency bands, as demonstrated by Würth Elektronik’s SL5 series.

In all of these use cases, proper placement of protection and filter elements—especially locating the common mode choke close to the connector—helps prevent noise from propagating into or out of the PCB, improving both EMC performance and system robustness.

Applications	Probable Noise Source	Main Frequency (reference)	CMC benefit
Power supplies, IoT, LED drivers	Active Switching	100 kHz – 1 MHz	Blocks CM Noise along cables
Cameras, robotics, PoE	Inrush / Capacitive Load	< 1 kHz	Dampens overshoot and ringing
Instrumentation	Ground loop or floating reference	500 kHz – 50 MHz	Suppresses CM
Power + Data	Fast buses: USB, WiFi, CAN	10 MHz – 500 MHz	Reduces Common mode coupling of digital signals on DC line
Industrial	EMI from Motors/ Relays	10 kHz – 5 MHz	Isolates DC line from inductive noise sources

Technical highlights

Varistor structure and behaviour

A classic disc varistor consists of three main layers: an outer epoxy insulation, internal silver or copper electrodes, and a zinc oxide ceramic core formed from many grains. At the microscopic level, the grains act as conductive regions and the grain boundaries act as barriers to current flow. When the applied voltage is low, only leakage current flows through the device; once the voltage across the electrodes becomes sufficiently high, the barriers break down and current can flow across many grain boundaries, rapidly increasing current in the clamping region.

The I–V characteristic of a THT varistor can be divided into four regions:

• Leakage region: current below 0.1 mA for 5 mm discs and below 1 mA for larger devices; the voltage at this current is the breakdown voltage.
• Working voltage region: defined as a voltage at least about 25% higher than the circuit’s normal operating voltage, ensuring the varistor does not conduct significantly during normal operation.
• Operating (clamping) region: between breakdown and the maximum rated surge current, where the varistor is considered “active” and clamps overvoltage pulses to protect the load.
• Destruction region: beyond the maximum surge current, where the device is close to failure and the curve is no longer guaranteed.

Multilayer varistors (MLV) share the same zinc‑oxide grain conduction mechanism but use multiple interdigitated silver electrodes in an SMD stack, giving a much smaller package size.

Compared to THT discs, multilayer types have lower working voltage range, lower maximum surge current and energy capability, but faster response time and significantly lower capacitance—important in data‑line ESD protection.

TVS diodes and snapback effects

TVS diodes provide an alternative surge and ESD protection technology based on silicon $p\text{-}n$p-n junctions. A typical device comprises a semiconductor chip, protective plastic package, and copper leads connected to the junction.

In unidirectional TVS diodes, forward conduction starts once the forward voltage exceeds about 0.6–0.7 V, while in reverse direction the diode remains in leakage up to its working voltage and then transitions into breakdown when the reverse voltage reaches a specified threshold. From breakdown up to the maximum rated current, the diode clamps voltage while allowing substantial current flow.

Some TVS diodes exhibit a snapback effect: the device requires an additional voltage above nominal breakdown to trigger a parasitic transistor formed in the package and PCB environment, after which the clamping voltage drops and follows a curve with lower voltage at a given current than a standard diode. This behaviour yields better protection (lower clamping voltage at equal current), at the cost of requiring an extra activation voltage that is generally negligible relative to typical transient pulse amplitudes.

Serie	THT varistor	Multilayer varistor	TVS Diode
Mount	THT	SMD	SMD
$V_{DC}$VDC​ (V)	18–1470	3.3–85	5–440
$I_{\text{peak}}$Ipeak​ (A)	100–10000	10–200	0.6–326.1
$W_{\text{max}}$Wmax​ (J)	0.7–620	0.02–1.10	–
C (pF)	35–12100	70–3600	1–20000
Reaction time	<25 ns	<1 ns	<1 ns

ESD protection and capacitance vs insertion loss

In the ESD protection domain, manufacturers offer multiple families of TVS diodes and multilayer varistors, grouped into standard, high‑speed, and super‑speed areas. The primary differentiator among these families is capacitance: standard types have the highest capacitance, high‑speed intermediate, and super‑speed the lowest. Lower capacitance is critical for high‑speed data‑line applications because it directly affects insertion loss and resonance behaviour.

Insertion loss depends predominantly on impedance, which in turn depends on resistance, inductance, and capacitance of the component. For these low‑inductance ESD devices, resistance remains almost constant with frequency and inductance is negligible, so capacitance dominates.

Higher capacitance lowers the resonance frequency and increases insertion loss from that point upward, potentially causing data errors. Design examples provided in the webinar relate typical data‑line frequencies (such as USB or Ethernet bands) to recommended capacitance ranges for ESD suppressors, helping designers choose appropriate low‑capacitance parts for their interface class.

Component	Surge	EFT/Burst	ESD	Reaction time	Capacitance
GDT – Gas discharge tube	X			µs	1 pF
MOV – Metal Oxide Varistor	X			>25 ns	10 p–10 nF
MLV – Multilayer Varistor		X	X	<1 ns	70 p–14 nF
TVS Diode – Transient Voltage Suppression			X	<1 ns	0.1–30 pF
TVSP Diode – TVS Power	X	X	X	<1 ns	20–2000 pF
ESD Suppressor			X	<1 ns	0.2–100 pF

Data line	Data rate	Frequency	Rec. capacitance for ESD device
RS 232	115.2 kbit/s	57.6 kHz	<56 pF
	100 kbit/s	50 kHz
I²C	400 kbit/s	200 kHz	<56 pF
	1 Mbit/s	500 kHz
RS 422	3.4 Mbit/s	1.7 MHz
	5 Mbit/s	5 MHz	<10 pF
RS 485	12 Mbit/s	6 MHz	<22 pF
CAN	500 kbit/s	6 MHz
USB 1.1	12 Mbit/s	6 MHz	<10 pF
USB 2.0	480 Mbit/s	240 MHz	<2 pF
USB 3.2 Gen 1×1	5 Gbit/s	2.5 GHz	<0.5 pF
USB 3.2 Gen 2×1	10 Gbit/s	5 GHz	<0.35 pF
USB 3.2 Gen 2×2	20 Gbit/s
USB 4 Gen 2	20 Gbit/s		<0.2 pF
USB 4 Gen 3	40 Gbit/s
SATA 1.0	1.5 Gbit/s	750 MHz	<1 pF
SATA 2.0	3 Gbit/s	1.5 MHz	<1 pF
SATA 3.0	6 Gbit/s	3 GHz	<0.6 pF
Ethernet IEEE 802.3u 100BASE-TX	100 Mbit/s	125 MHz digital CLK	<6 pF
Ethernet IEEE 802.3ab 1000BASE-T	1 Gbit/s	31.25 MHz UTP	<3 pF
Ethernet IEEE 802.3az 10GBASE-T	10 Gbit/s	417 MHz	<2 pF
LVDS	1.325 Gbit/s		<2 pF
HDMI 1.3	8.16 Gbit/s	3.2 GHz (165 MHz)	<0.5 pF
HDMI 1.4	8.16 Gbit/s	810 MHz (160 MHz)	<0.5 pF
HDMI 2.0	14.4 Gbit/s	6 GHz (600 MHz)	<0.3 pF
HDMI 2.1	42.6 Gbit/s	12.8 GHz (600 MHz)	<0.25 pF
DisplayPort 1.1	8.64 Gbit/s	1.35 GHz (270 MHz)	<0.6 pF
DisplayPort 1.2	17.28 Gbit/s	2.7 GHz (270 MHz)	<0.6 pF
DisplayPort 1.3	25.92 Gbit/s	4.32 GHz (810 MHz)	<0.3 pF
DisplayPort 1.4	25.92 Gbit/s	4.05 GHz (810 MHz)	<0.3 pF

Common mode vs differential mode in chokes

Common mode chokes rely on the difference between common‑mode and differential‑mode currents:

• Differential mode: equal currents in opposite directions on two conductors, representing the desired signal or power transmission.
• Common mode: currents in the same direction on both conductors, returning via chassis or parasitic capacitances.

A common mode choke has at least two windings on a shared core. In common mode, the currents in both windings generate co‑directional magnetic fields, increasing flux and presenting high impedance that blocks common‑mode noise. In differential mode, currents produce opposing magnetic fields that largely cancel, leaving the choke with very low impedance for the desired signal. This field cancellation explains why, under normal operating conditions, common mode chokes do not saturate even at high differential‑mode currents, unlike single‑winding inductors.

Measurement data presented in the webinar show that common mode chokes saturate quickly when driven in pure common mode, but in differential mode the effective flux remains near zero and saturation is negligible. Given that common‑mode noise currents are usually only in the microampere to milliampere range, this saturation behaviour rarely poses a design problem.

Winding styles and parasitics

Two main winding styles are used in common mode chokes:

• Bifilar (or multifilar) winding: windings wound side by side, giving very small stray fields and low leakage inductance.
• Sectional winding: each winding occupies a separate half of the core or separate bobbin chambers, increasing stray fields and leakage inductance.

Closer coupling between windings (bifilar) minimizes the stray field and leakage inductance, which is desirable in many data‑line chokes where low differential‑mode impedance is required. Sectional winding, used widely in mains chokes, increases leakage inductance and parasitic capacitances, which can be exploited to provide some differential‑mode attenuation at higher frequencies without significantly affecting the fundamental mains frequency (50/60 Hz).

Design examples show that even with identical nominal inductance and core material, different winding geometries lead to significantly different attenuation curves versus frequency. Frame‑core chokes with separated chambers reduce parasitic capacitances and shift resonance to higher frequencies; toroidal chokes may have different parasitic distributions. For power‑line filters, the combination of winding style, parasitic capacitances, and leakage inductance can be tuned so that a single common mode choke attenuates both common‑ and differential‑mode noise, potentially eliminating the need for a separate differential‑mode inductor.

Core materials and impedance profiles

The webinar compares similar‑size toroidal common mode chokes using different core materials:

• Manganese‑zinc ferrite: best attenuation at lower frequencies, typically used for mains filters and low‑frequency noise suppression.
• Nickel‑zinc ferrite: suited to higher‑frequency noise, with resonance reaching nearly 20 MHz in the example plotted.
• Nanocrystalline cores: offer a broad useful frequency range with good temperature stability and moderate attenuation amplitude, often enabling smaller component sizes for the same inductance and performance.

Although three chokes in the example all share a nominal inductance of 1 mH, their impedance and attenuation curves differ significantly across the frequency spectrum. The number of turns required to achieve the same inductance also differs between materials, affecting copper loss and size. This demonstrates that choosing a common mode choke purely by inductance is inadequate; designers should consult impedance or attenuation vs frequency curves and match these to the noise spectrum they need to suppress.

Corematerial	Number of turns	Wirediameter in mm	Inductance in mH
MnZn	12	0,6	1,00
Nanocrystalline	13	0,5	5,00
NiZn	13	0,5	0,11

Design‑in notes for engineers

Selecting and placing varistors

When selecting a varistor for surge protection:

• Choose the working voltage at least about 25% higher than the maximum normal operating voltage to avoid premature leakage conduction.
• Verify the maximum surge current and energy capability against the worst‑case surge (IEC 61000‑4‑5) and EFT/B test levels and the expected number of events over the product lifetime. Lifetime derating graphs in the manufacturer datasheet show the theoretical number of pulses a varistor can withstand before failure.
• For data‑line or space‑constrained designs, multilayer varistors provide smaller footprint and faster response but lower energy handling; they should be reserved for applications where surge energy is low and the primary concern is ESD and small transients.

In practice, varistors age as they are repeatedly subjected to surges: material degradation at zinc‑oxide grain boundaries weakens barrier properties, increasing leakage current over time. Engineers can monitor varistor health by periodically measuring leakage current or the I–V curve; a significant increase in leakage compared to new devices is a strong indication that replacement is advisable. Capacitance change with age is expected to be modest and primarily of theoretical interest, assuming electrode spacing remains unchanged.

Parallel connection of varistors is generally discouraged because small differences in clamping voltage and leakage current cause current to concentrate in the “weakest” varistor, which then absorbs most of the energy and fails first. Instead, designers should select a single varistor with suitable surge rating for the application or consider series combinations where appropriate and supported by datasheet guidance.

ESD suppressor selection and data‑line impact

For ESD protection on data lines:

• Prioritize low capacitance to minimize insertion loss at the data frequency and preserve eye diagrams and bit error rates. Super‑speed families are tailored for high‑data‑rate interfaces, while standard families may be acceptable for slower interfaces.
• Consider whether TVS diodes with snapback behaviour are advantageous; their lower clamping voltage at equal current improves protection but requires confidence that the additional trigger voltage is negligible relative to ESD stress levels in your application.
• For closely spaced pads or extremely compact layouts, multi‑array varistors can provide multiple protection paths in one package; improved production processes now allow these arrays to achieve lower capacitance values than earlier generations.

Insertion loss becomes especially critical for very sensitive or small‑signal data interfaces. Designers should correlate interface baud rates or spectral content with recommended capacitance ranges from the manufacturer’s tables, then validate the chosen ESD component through S‑parameter simulations or lab measurements if possible.

Common mode choke selection and data sheet interpretation

When selecting common mode chokes, engineers should:

• Define clearly whether the application is mains, DC power, data, or a mixed use case, since this determines priorities such as insulation level, leakage inductance, and differential‑mode impedance.
• Use the rated current and rated voltage parameters together with derating curves and ambient temperature assumptions to ensure the choke operates within thermal limits; for example, a choke rated at 70 °C ambient with 55 K maximum self‑heating must not exceed its maximum operating temperature when both ambient and self‑heating are summed.
• Follow IEC 60638 creepage and clearance requirements (as referenced in the webinar) for mains chokes: for 230 V AC systems, typical clearances of about 2.5 mm and creepage distances between roughly 1.25 and 4 mm are required depending on insulation material and pollution degree. Sectional winding supports these distances more easily than bifilar winding.

IEC 60938 Safety Requirements

Mains supply nominal voltage line-to-neutral	150 V	300 V	600 V	1000 V
AC voltage	150 V	300 V	600 V	1000 V
DC voltage	250 V	450 V	900 V	1500 V
Between live parts of different polarity	1,5 mm	2,5 mm	3,0 mm	5,5 mm

Designers should avoid comparing components solely at a single inductance value from datasheets. Instead, it is better to examine plots of inductance vs frequency and impedance/attenuation vs frequency, ensuring the nominal inductance is defined in a frequency region where test equipment accuracy is acceptable and where frequency effects are minimal. Manufacturers often reference IEC test frequency recommendations (e.g., using 10 kHz for inductors of 1 mH and above), which help align measurements across different product families.

Winding style, leakage inductance, and mixed filters

For power‑line filters:

• Sectional winding style creates higher leakage inductance and parasitic capacitances, contributing useful differential‑mode attenuation at frequencies much higher than 50/60 Hz while meeting creepage and clearance requirements. This can reduce or eliminate the need for separate differential‑mode chokes in some designs.
• The desired mains signal at 50/60 Hz is unaffected because the differential‑mode attenuation begins only at significantly higher frequencies (e.g. in the 100 kHz to 1 MHz range, as shown in attenuation curves below).
• Frame‑core chokes with separated chambers reduce parasitic capacitances and shift resonance to higher frequencies, tailoring the filter’s band of maximum attenuation. Engineers can use winding geometry and parasitics intentionally to place resonances where the dominant noise energy lies.

For data and DC line filters:

• Bifilar winding minimizes leakage inductance and parasitics, keeping differential‑mode impedance low; this is important in data‑line chokes to avoid degrading signal rise times and introducing jitter.
• In DC‑line chokes, both common‑mode and differential‑mode impedances can be beneficial, as high impedance in both modes helps reject conducted noise in low‑power lines, provided voltage drop due to DC resistance remains acceptable.
• Recommended PCB layout places the common mode choke as close as possible to the connector, isolating the PCB from external noise sources and preventing internal noise from coupling onto cables. Example implementations in LED matrices show flicker problems resolved by adding an appropriately selected DC common mode choke near the output connector.

Lifetime, ageing, and portfolio updates

The webinar highlights ongoing portfolio evolution and reliability improvements:

• Würth Elektronik’s THT varistor series have had their maximum operating temperature upgraded from 85 °C to 105 °C, enhancing robustness for high‑temperature environments according to manufacturer datasheets.
• The VS multilayer varistor series has been converted to lead‑free versions following a product change notice (PCN), aligning with environmental and regulatory expectations.
• New common mode choke variants include a CNSW series size tailored for CAN bus applications and expanded DC choke families with additional sizes and packages, plus an upcoming CNB HV series with higher voltage ratings up to approximately 1,000 V AC and 1,250 V DC and planned certification by VDE and another safety agency.

For long‑life applications, engineers should combine datasheet lifetime derating graphs with their specific surge/ESD environment and consider periodic leakage‑current monitoring on varistors and similar devices during maintenance intervals.

Technical highlights summary table

The following table summarizes some of the key component characteristics discussed in the webinar, as a quick design reference. Exact numerical values should be taken from the relevant manufacturer datasheet.

Component type	Key function	Strengths in practice	Limitations / caveats
THT disc varistor	Surge clamping on mains/DC	High energy handling, wide voltage range, simple integration	Higher capacitance, ageing increases leakage
Multilayer SMD varistor	ESD/surge on data & low‑power lines	Fast response, low capacitance, small footprint	Lower surge current and energy capability
TVS diode (unidirectional)	ESD/surge, especially low‑voltage rails	Sharp breakdown, precise clamping, SMD form factor	Narrow clamping region, some variants show snapback
TVS diode with snapback	Improved ESD clamping	Lower clamping voltage at same current, better protection	Needs extra trigger voltage, behaviour PCB‑dependent
Common mode choke, sectional winding	Mains and power filters	High common‑mode impedance, useful differential‑mode attenuation via leakage, good insulation	Larger stray field, higher parasitics
Common mode choke, bifilar winding	Data and low‑voltage filters	Low leakage inductance, minimal differential‑mode impedance, compact	Less suited to meeting large creepage/clearance distances
Standard capacitance ESD family	General‑purpose interfaces	Robust protection for moderate data rates	Higher insertion loss at high frequencies
Super‑speed ESD family	High‑speed serial links	Minimal insertion loss, preserved signal integrity	Lower energy handling, careful layout required

All performance values and limits in this table are intended only as qualitative guidance; exact ratings depend on specific series and part numbers according to manufacturer datasheets.

Conclusion

After working through this webinar’s content, a design engineer or component buyer should be able to map real‑world surge, EFT, and ESD environments onto suitable varistor and TVS families, understand how common mode chokes differentiate between noise modes and desired signals, and interpret datasheet parameters such as breakdown voltage, rated current, inductance vs frequency, and creepage/clearance distances in a safety and EMC context. By paying attention to winding style, core material, parasitic capacitances, and placement on the PCB, engineers can turn common mode chokes from generic catalogue inductors into carefully tuned filter elements that address both common‑ and differential‑mode noise at relevant frequencies.

For practical next steps, designers should review manufacturer application notes on mains filter design and common mode chokes, consult updated series information (such as new CAN‑oriented chokes and high‑voltage variants), and cross‑check lifetime and thermal derating curves against their expected surge environment and ambient temperatures. Purchasers can use this understanding to distinguish between components chosen purely on inductance or voltage rating and those selected for frequency‑appropriate impedance profiles and lifetime performance, improving both EMC compliance and long‑term reliability of the systems they support.

FAQ

Source

This article is based on engineering information presented in a Würth Elektronik technical webinar titled “EMC Design Fundamentals: How to Use Varistors and Common Mode Chokes Safely,” including the accompanying transcript and linked application documentation from the manufacturer.

References

1. EMC Design Fundamentals: How to Use Varistors and Common Mode Chokes Safely (Würth Elektronik YouTube webinar)
2. ANP015 – 1‑Phase Line Filter Design (Würth Elektronik application note)
3. Catalogue and tutorial – Common Mode Chokes (Würth Elektronik)
4. Mains Filter Guide poster (Würth Elektronik)
5. ANP146 – Theoretical background and practical applications of WE‑CMDC common mode chokes (German)
6. Würth Elektronik eiSos – Product overview